Elucidating aflatoxins profile and recommended detoxification procedures in corn, rice, and wheat
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Keywords
Abstract
Corn, rice, and wheat are the basic and fundamental foods among Pakistan’s widely consumed crops. Total aflatoxins (B1+B2+G1+G2) are carcinogenic fungal species that badly deteriorate food crops. The current study is aimed to identify total aflatoxins in different samples of corn, rice, and wheat consumed in the Punjab province of Pakistan and to assess various low-cost and practical detoxification techniques for lowering aflatoxin levels found in these crops. To achieve this, 80 samples each of corn, rice, and wheat products (n = 240) were collected. The collected crop samples underwent analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the quantification of aflatoxins. Results showed that 69.58% of the crop samples were suitable, while 30.42% were not suitable for human consumption. The majority of corn samples in the Punjab province were discovered to be contaminated and unsuitable for consumption. The highest level of contamination (amounting 545 μg/kg) was detected in a corn sample from district Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The highly contaminated crop sample was subjected to different detoxification methods, such as physical, chemical, and biological/natural means. After treatment with different detoxifiers, reduction in total aflatoxins was quantified by using HPLC. Results showed that maximum detoxification was obtained by cooking (physical method), by using 20% citric acid (chemical method), and by using probiotics (biological method).
Riferimenti bibliografici
Aiko, V., Edamana, P. and Mehta, A. 2016. Decomposition and detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by lactic acid. J Sci Food Agri. 96(6):1959–1966. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7304
Alrabadi, N.I., Al-Jubury, E.M., Thalij, K.M. and Hajeej, J.M. 2018. Lactobacillus rhamnosus ability of aflatoxin detoxification. Jordan J Biol Sci. 11(1):87–92.
Arshad H. and Ghosia L. 2009. Reduction of Aflatoxin-B-1 and Ochratoxin-A levels in polished basmati rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) by different cooking methods. J Chem Soc Pak. 31(6):911–915.
De Man, J.C., Rogosa, D. and Sharpe, M.E. 1960. A medium for the cultivation of lactobacilli. J App Bacteriol. 23(1):130–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1960.tb00188.x
European Union (EU). 2010. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 165/2010 of 26 February 2010, Amending Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards aflatoxins. Off J EU. L50:8–12.
Gowda, N.K.S., Malathi, V. and Suganthi, R.U. 2004. Effect of some chemical and herbal compounds on growth of Aspergillus parasiticus and aflatoxin production. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 116(3–4):281–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2004.02.008
Hacıseferoğulları, H., Özcan, M., Demir, F. and Çalışır, S. 2005. Some nutritional and technological properties of garlic (Allium sativum L.). J Food Eng. 68(4):463–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.06.024
Hartemink, R., Domenech, V.R. and Rombouts, F.M. 1997. LAMVAB—a new selective medium for the isolation of lactobacilli from faeces. J Microbiol Methods. 29(2):77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7012(97)00025-0
Holt, J.G., Krieg, N.R., Sneath, P.H., Staley, J.T. and Williams, S.T. 1994. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th edn. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, pp. 667–669.
Hussain, A. and Ali, J. 2012. Inhibition of aflatoxin producing fungus growth using chemical, herbal compounds/spices and plants. Pure App Biol. 1(1):8–13. https://doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2012.11002
Hussain, A. and Luttfullah, G. 2009. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A levels in polished basmati rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) by different cooking methods. J Chem Soc Pak. 31(6):911–915.
Hwang, J.H. and Lee, K.G. 2006. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 contamination in wheat by various cooking treatments. Food Chem. 98(1):71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.038
Jalili, M. 2016. A review on aflatoxins reduction in food. Iran J Health Saf Environ. 3(1):445–459.
Jalili, M., Jinap, S. and Son, R. 2011. The effect of chemical treatment on reduction of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in black and white pepper during washing. Food Addit Contam. 28(4):485–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2010.551300
Javed, S., Mazhar, MW., Yusnoraini, N., Rehanm MBM., Haniphi, RM., Nik, NKH., Yakob, AS., Harun, HC., Aziz, T., Alharbi, M., Alasmari, AF. 2024. Comparative effect of Rhizosphoric and Endophytic Bacteria for TCP and CaCO3 solubilization and Growth Promotion of Wheat. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 22(3): 2455-2472. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2203_24552472
Kamimura, H. 2000. Removal of mycotoxins during food processing. JSM Mycotoxins. 1999(Suppl2):88–94. https://doi.org/10.2520/myco1975.1999.Suppl2_88
Khosravi, A.R., Minooeianhaghighi, M.H., Shokri, H., Emami, S.A., Alavi, S.M. and Asili, J. 2011. The potential inhibitory effect of Cuminum cyminum, Ziziphora clinopodioides and Nigella sativa essential oils on the growth of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. Brazil J Microbiol. 42(1):216–224. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822011000100027
Krishnamurthy, Y.L. and Shashikala, J. 2006. Inhibition of aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus, isolated from soybean seeds by certain natural plant products. Lett Appl Microbiol. 43(5):469–474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02011.x
Kshemkalyani, S.B., Ragini, T., Madhavi, B. and Patel, G.S. 1990. The effect of allicine and extracts of garlic on Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Indian J Mycol Plant Pathol. 20(3):247–248.
Majeed, S. 2018. Analysis, Inhibition and Degradation of Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs. Doctoral dissertation. Department of Biotechnology, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Maraqa, A., Al-Sharo'a, N.F., Farah, H., Elbjeirami, W.M., Shakya, A.K. and Sallal, A.K.J. 2007. Effect of Nigella sativa extract and oil on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus. Turk J Biol. 31(3):155–159.
Méndez-Albores, A., Arambula-Villa, G., Loarca-Piña, M.G.F., Castano-Tostado, E., and Moreno-Martínez, E. 2005. Safety and efficacy evaluation of aqueous citric acid to degrade B-aflatoxins in maize. Food Chem Toxicol. 43(2):233–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2004.09.009
Montville, T.J. and Goldstein, P.K. 1989. Sodium bicarbonate inhibition of aflatoxigenesis in corn. J Food Prot. 52(1):45–48. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-52.1.45
Nadeem, S., Zahra, N., Munawar, A., Saeed, Khalid, Saeed, A., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., Alharbi, M., Alasmari AF., Albekiairi, TH. 2025. Determination and Detoxification of Total Aflatoxins and Deoxynivalenol from different Types of Cereals and Pulses. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 23(3):4937-4950. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_49374950
Nisa, A., Zahra, N., Hina, S. and Ejaz, N. 2012. Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in poultry and fish feed by various chemicals. Pak J Sci Ind Res. 55(3):154–158. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.55.3.2012.154.158
Nisa, A., Zahra, N., Hina, S., Hayat, R. and Ejaz, N. 2013. Quantification and detoxification of aflatoxin in food items. Pak J Sci Ind Res B Biol Sci. 56(2):98–105. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.56.2.2013.98.104
Nisa, A., Zahra, N. and Yasha, N.B. 2016. Comparative study of aflatoxins in brown rice samples of local and import quality. Int Food Res J. 23(1):243–247.
Rastegar, H., Shoeibi, S., Yazdanpanah, H., Amirahmadi, M., Khaneghah, A.M., Campagnollo, F.B. and Sant’Ana, A.S. 2017. Removal of aflatoxin B1 by roasting with lemon juice and/or citric acid in contaminated pistachio nuts. Food Control. 71(2017):279–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.06.045
Rahman, K., Lowe GM. 2006. Garlic and cardiovascular disease: a critical review. J Nutr. 136(3 Suppl):736S-740S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.3.736S.
Reddy, U.M. and Rani, P.C. 2000. Effect of processing on detoxification of aflatoxins in maize. Indian J Nutr Diet. 37(2):59–63.
Reddy, K.R.N., Reddy, C.S. and Muralidharan, K. 2009. Potential of botanicals and biocontrol agents on growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus infecting rice grains. Food Control. 20(2):173–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.03.009
Safara, M., Zaini, F., Hashemi, S.J., Mahmoudi, M., Khosravi, A.R. and Shojai-Aliabadi, F. 2010. Aflatoxin detoxification in rice using citric acid. Iran J Public Health. 39(2):24–29.
Saidan, M., Dhifi, W. and Marzouk, B. 2004. Lipid evaluation of some Tunisian citrus seeds. J Food Lipids. 11(3):242–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4522.2004.01136.x
Saladino, F., Luz, C., Manyes, L., Fernández-Franzón, M. and Meca, G. 2016. In vitro antifungal activity of lactic acid bacteria against mycotoxigenic fungi and their application in loaf bread shelf life improvement. Food Control. 67(2016):273–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.03.012
Samarajeewa, U., Sen, A.C., Cohen, M.D. and Wei, C.I. 1990. Detoxification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds by physical and chemical methods. J Food Prot. 53(6):489–501. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-53.6.489
Sani, A.M., Azizi, E.G., Salehi, E.A. and Rahimi, K. 2014. Reduction of aflatoxin in rice by different cooking methods. Toxicol Ind Health. 30(6):546–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233712462466
Shetty, P.H. and Jespersen, L. 2006. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lactic acid bacteria as potential mycotoxin decontaminating agents. Trends Food Sci Technol. 17(2):48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.004
Steel R.D., Torrie J.H. and Dickey D. 1997. Principles and Procedures of Statistic: A Biometrical Approach, 3rd edn. McGraw Hills, New York, NY.
Syukur, S., Bisping, B., Aneloi Noli, Z. and Purwati, E. 2013. Antimicrobial properties and Lactase activities from selected probiotic Lactobacillus brevis associated with green cacao fermentation in West Sumatra, Indonesia. J Probiot Health. 1(4):113. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-8901.1000113
Tadi, P.P., Lau, B.H., Teel, R.W. and Herrmann, C.E. 1991. Binding of aflatoxin B1 to DNA inhibited by ajoene and diallyl sulfide. Anticancer Res. 11(6):2037–2041.
Vijayanandraj, S., Brinda, R., Kannan, K., Adhithya, R., Vinothini, S., Senthil, K., Chinta, R.R., Paranidharan, V. and Velazhahan, R. 2014. Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by an aqueous extract from leaves of Adhatoda vasica Nees. Microbiol Res. 169(4):294–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2013.07.008
Villers, P. 2014. Aflatoxins and safe storage. Front Microbiol. 5(2014):158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00158
Yin, M.C. and Tsao, S.M. 1999. Inhibitory effect of seven Allium plants upon three Aspergillus species. Int J Food Microbiol. 49(1–2):49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(99)00061-6
Zahra, N., Fatima, S., Nazir., A, Farrukh, SY., Anwer, A., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., Al, Asmari, F., Nahari, AM., Jalal, RS., Al-Joufi, FA., Alwethaynani, MS. 2025. In vivo and in silico analysis of anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic activity of methanolic extract of Nigella sativa. J Mol Histol. 56(2):118. https://doi.org 10.1007/s10735-025-10399-2.
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Ahmad, S.R., Munir, S., Saeed, M.K. and Kalim, I. 2017. Comparative analysis of brown and white rice samples for the presence of aflatoxin B1 contamination and effect of environment temperature on aflatoxin concentration during storage. Transylv Rev. 25(17):4507–4515.
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M. K., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., & Aziz, T. 2025. Geospatial distribution of mycotoxins in wheat collected in summer and winter seasons from a selected area. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(3), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i3.3065
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M.K., Ahmad, S.R., Kalim, I. and Sheikh, A. 2019. A review of mycotoxin types, occurrence, toxicity, detection methods and control. Pak J Sci Ind Res Series B Biol Sci. 62(3):206–218. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.62.3.2019.206.218
Alrabadi, N.I., Al-Jubury, E.M., Thalij, K.M. and Hajeej, J.M. 2018. Lactobacillus rhamnosus ability of aflatoxin detoxification. Jordan J Biol Sci. 11(1):87–92.
Arshad H. and Ghosia L. 2009. Reduction of Aflatoxin-B-1 and Ochratoxin-A levels in polished basmati rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) by different cooking methods. J Chem Soc Pak. 31(6):911–915.
De Man, J.C., Rogosa, D. and Sharpe, M.E. 1960. A medium for the cultivation of lactobacilli. J App Bacteriol. 23(1):130–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.1960.tb00188.x
European Union (EU). 2010. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 165/2010 of 26 February 2010, Amending Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006. Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs as regards aflatoxins. Off J EU. L50:8–12.
Gowda, N.K.S., Malathi, V. and Suganthi, R.U. 2004. Effect of some chemical and herbal compounds on growth of Aspergillus parasiticus and aflatoxin production. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 116(3–4):281–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2004.02.008
Hacıseferoğulları, H., Özcan, M., Demir, F. and Çalışır, S. 2005. Some nutritional and technological properties of garlic (Allium sativum L.). J Food Eng. 68(4):463–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.06.024
Hartemink, R., Domenech, V.R. and Rombouts, F.M. 1997. LAMVAB—a new selective medium for the isolation of lactobacilli from faeces. J Microbiol Methods. 29(2):77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-7012(97)00025-0
Holt, J.G., Krieg, N.R., Sneath, P.H., Staley, J.T. and Williams, S.T. 1994. Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, 9th edn. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, pp. 667–669.
Hussain, A. and Ali, J. 2012. Inhibition of aflatoxin producing fungus growth using chemical, herbal compounds/spices and plants. Pure App Biol. 1(1):8–13. https://doi.org/10.19045/bspab.2012.11002
Hussain, A. and Luttfullah, G. 2009. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A levels in polished basmati rice (Oryza sativa Linn.) by different cooking methods. J Chem Soc Pak. 31(6):911–915.
Hwang, J.H. and Lee, K.G. 2006. Reduction of aflatoxin B1 contamination in wheat by various cooking treatments. Food Chem. 98(1):71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.04.038
Jalili, M. 2016. A review on aflatoxins reduction in food. Iran J Health Saf Environ. 3(1):445–459.
Jalili, M., Jinap, S. and Son, R. 2011. The effect of chemical treatment on reduction of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in black and white pepper during washing. Food Addit Contam. 28(4):485–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2010.551300
Javed, S., Mazhar, MW., Yusnoraini, N., Rehanm MBM., Haniphi, RM., Nik, NKH., Yakob, AS., Harun, HC., Aziz, T., Alharbi, M., Alasmari, AF. 2024. Comparative effect of Rhizosphoric and Endophytic Bacteria for TCP and CaCO3 solubilization and Growth Promotion of Wheat. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 22(3): 2455-2472. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2203_24552472
Kamimura, H. 2000. Removal of mycotoxins during food processing. JSM Mycotoxins. 1999(Suppl2):88–94. https://doi.org/10.2520/myco1975.1999.Suppl2_88
Khosravi, A.R., Minooeianhaghighi, M.H., Shokri, H., Emami, S.A., Alavi, S.M. and Asili, J. 2011. The potential inhibitory effect of Cuminum cyminum, Ziziphora clinopodioides and Nigella sativa essential oils on the growth of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. Brazil J Microbiol. 42(1):216–224. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822011000100027
Krishnamurthy, Y.L. and Shashikala, J. 2006. Inhibition of aflatoxin B1 production of Aspergillus flavus, isolated from soybean seeds by certain natural plant products. Lett Appl Microbiol. 43(5):469–474. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.02011.x
Kshemkalyani, S.B., Ragini, T., Madhavi, B. and Patel, G.S. 1990. The effect of allicine and extracts of garlic on Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Indian J Mycol Plant Pathol. 20(3):247–248.
Majeed, S. 2018. Analysis, Inhibition and Degradation of Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs. Doctoral dissertation. Department of Biotechnology, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Maraqa, A., Al-Sharo'a, N.F., Farah, H., Elbjeirami, W.M., Shakya, A.K. and Sallal, A.K.J. 2007. Effect of Nigella sativa extract and oil on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus. Turk J Biol. 31(3):155–159.
Méndez-Albores, A., Arambula-Villa, G., Loarca-Piña, M.G.F., Castano-Tostado, E., and Moreno-Martínez, E. 2005. Safety and efficacy evaluation of aqueous citric acid to degrade B-aflatoxins in maize. Food Chem Toxicol. 43(2):233–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2004.09.009
Montville, T.J. and Goldstein, P.K. 1989. Sodium bicarbonate inhibition of aflatoxigenesis in corn. J Food Prot. 52(1):45–48. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-52.1.45
Nadeem, S., Zahra, N., Munawar, A., Saeed, Khalid, Saeed, A., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., Alharbi, M., Alasmari AF., Albekiairi, TH. 2025. Determination and Detoxification of Total Aflatoxins and Deoxynivalenol from different Types of Cereals and Pulses. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 23(3):4937-4950. http://dx.doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2303_49374950
Nisa, A., Zahra, N., Hina, S. and Ejaz, N. 2012. Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 in poultry and fish feed by various chemicals. Pak J Sci Ind Res. 55(3):154–158. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.55.3.2012.154.158
Nisa, A., Zahra, N., Hina, S., Hayat, R. and Ejaz, N. 2013. Quantification and detoxification of aflatoxin in food items. Pak J Sci Ind Res B Biol Sci. 56(2):98–105. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.56.2.2013.98.104
Nisa, A., Zahra, N. and Yasha, N.B. 2016. Comparative study of aflatoxins in brown rice samples of local and import quality. Int Food Res J. 23(1):243–247.
Rastegar, H., Shoeibi, S., Yazdanpanah, H., Amirahmadi, M., Khaneghah, A.M., Campagnollo, F.B. and Sant’Ana, A.S. 2017. Removal of aflatoxin B1 by roasting with lemon juice and/or citric acid in contaminated pistachio nuts. Food Control. 71(2017):279–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.06.045
Rahman, K., Lowe GM. 2006. Garlic and cardiovascular disease: a critical review. J Nutr. 136(3 Suppl):736S-740S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.3.736S.
Reddy, U.M. and Rani, P.C. 2000. Effect of processing on detoxification of aflatoxins in maize. Indian J Nutr Diet. 37(2):59–63.
Reddy, K.R.N., Reddy, C.S. and Muralidharan, K. 2009. Potential of botanicals and biocontrol agents on growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus infecting rice grains. Food Control. 20(2):173–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.03.009
Safara, M., Zaini, F., Hashemi, S.J., Mahmoudi, M., Khosravi, A.R. and Shojai-Aliabadi, F. 2010. Aflatoxin detoxification in rice using citric acid. Iran J Public Health. 39(2):24–29.
Saidan, M., Dhifi, W. and Marzouk, B. 2004. Lipid evaluation of some Tunisian citrus seeds. J Food Lipids. 11(3):242–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4522.2004.01136.x
Saladino, F., Luz, C., Manyes, L., Fernández-Franzón, M. and Meca, G. 2016. In vitro antifungal activity of lactic acid bacteria against mycotoxigenic fungi and their application in loaf bread shelf life improvement. Food Control. 67(2016):273–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2016.03.012
Samarajeewa, U., Sen, A.C., Cohen, M.D. and Wei, C.I. 1990. Detoxification of aflatoxins in foods and feeds by physical and chemical methods. J Food Prot. 53(6):489–501. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-53.6.489
Sani, A.M., Azizi, E.G., Salehi, E.A. and Rahimi, K. 2014. Reduction of aflatoxin in rice by different cooking methods. Toxicol Ind Health. 30(6):546–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233712462466
Shetty, P.H. and Jespersen, L. 2006. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and lactic acid bacteria as potential mycotoxin decontaminating agents. Trends Food Sci Technol. 17(2):48–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.004
Steel R.D., Torrie J.H. and Dickey D. 1997. Principles and Procedures of Statistic: A Biometrical Approach, 3rd edn. McGraw Hills, New York, NY.
Syukur, S., Bisping, B., Aneloi Noli, Z. and Purwati, E. 2013. Antimicrobial properties and Lactase activities from selected probiotic Lactobacillus brevis associated with green cacao fermentation in West Sumatra, Indonesia. J Probiot Health. 1(4):113. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-8901.1000113
Tadi, P.P., Lau, B.H., Teel, R.W. and Herrmann, C.E. 1991. Binding of aflatoxin B1 to DNA inhibited by ajoene and diallyl sulfide. Anticancer Res. 11(6):2037–2041.
Vijayanandraj, S., Brinda, R., Kannan, K., Adhithya, R., Vinothini, S., Senthil, K., Chinta, R.R., Paranidharan, V. and Velazhahan, R. 2014. Detoxification of aflatoxin B1 by an aqueous extract from leaves of Adhatoda vasica Nees. Microbiol Res. 169(4):294–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2013.07.008
Villers, P. 2014. Aflatoxins and safe storage. Front Microbiol. 5(2014):158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00158
Yin, M.C. and Tsao, S.M. 1999. Inhibitory effect of seven Allium plants upon three Aspergillus species. Int J Food Microbiol. 49(1–2):49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(99)00061-6
Zahra, N., Fatima, S., Nazir., A, Farrukh, SY., Anwer, A., Sarwar, A., Aziz, T., Al, Asmari, F., Nahari, AM., Jalal, RS., Al-Joufi, FA., Alwethaynani, MS. 2025. In vivo and in silico analysis of anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic activity of methanolic extract of Nigella sativa. J Mol Histol. 56(2):118. https://doi.org 10.1007/s10735-025-10399-2.
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Ahmad, S.R., Munir, S., Saeed, M.K. and Kalim, I. 2017. Comparative analysis of brown and white rice samples for the presence of aflatoxin B1 contamination and effect of environment temperature on aflatoxin concentration during storage. Transylv Rev. 25(17):4507–4515.
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M. K., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., & Aziz, T. 2025. Geospatial distribution of mycotoxins in wheat collected in summer and winter seasons from a selected area. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(3), 267-278. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i3.3065
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Saeed, M.K., Ahmad, S.R., Kalim, I. and Sheikh, A. 2019. A review of mycotoxin types, occurrence, toxicity, detection methods and control. Pak J Sci Ind Res Series B Biol Sci. 62(3):206–218. https://doi.org/10.52763/PJSIR.BIOL.SCI.62.3.2019.206.218
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Oct 1, 2025
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Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Ahmad, S. R., ur Rahman, S., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., ul Haq, T., Khan, A. A., Mubarak Alwutayd, K., Al-Asmari, F., Al-Joufi, F. A., & Nahari, A. M. (2025). Elucidating aflatoxins profile and recommended detoxification procedures in corn, rice, and wheat. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 478-487. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i4.3245
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Come citare
Zahra, N., Jamil, N., Ahmad, S. R., ur Rahman, S., Ullah, N., Sarwar, A., ul Haq, T., Khan, A. A., Mubarak Alwutayd, K., Al-Asmari, F., Al-Joufi, F. A., & Nahari, A. M. (2025). Elucidating aflatoxins profile and recommended detoxification procedures in corn, rice, and wheat. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 478-487. https://doi.org/10.15586/ijfs.v37i4.3245