Evaluating composition of fatty acids in commonly used edible oils and fats on repeated frying for its nutritional quality implications
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Keywords
Abstract
Continuous frying of many food items in the same vegetable oils or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (fats) by homemakers and commercial vendors has become a routine practice in many developing countries of Asia. The present study evaluated the composition of fatty acids (FAs) in commonly used edible oils (canola oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, and linseed oil) and fats (Utility ghee, Kisan ghee, Shama ghee, and Dalda ghee). Further, it quantified changes in the composition of their FAs, especially regarding transformation of cis-FAs to trans FAs, during repeated frying for 0, 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h at 180°C. A large variability (p < 0.001) was observed in composition of FAs among unheated fats and oils. Compared to oils, the fats had higher (p < 0.05) contents of saturated FAs (SFAs) and trans FAs, and lower (p < 0.05) contents of cis-unsaturated FAs (cis-UFAs). Repeated frying for 24 h consistently decreased (p < 0.05) the contents of cis-UFAs and increased (p < 0.05) the contents of SFAs and trans FAs in all fats and oils. The SFA–cis-UFA ratio of all fats and oils increased (p < 0.05) during 24 h of heating, reflecting deterioration in their nutritional quality. In conclusion, repeated frying of fats and oils induces cis–trans conversion and increases SFA–cis-UFA ratio.
Riferimenti bibliografici
Agrawal, A., Gupta, R., Varma, K. and Mathur B. 2008. High trans fatty acid content in common Indian fast foods. Nutr Food Sci. 38:564–569. https://doi.org/10.1108/00346650810920178
Bhardwaj, S., Passi, S.J. and Misra, A. 2011. Overview of trans fatty acids: biochemistry and health effects. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev (DMSCRR). 5:161–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2012.03.002
Bhardwaj, S., Passi, S.J., Misra, A., Pant, K.K., Anwar, K., Pandey, R.M. and Kardam, V. 2016. Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation. Food Chem. 212:663–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.021
Brundiek, H.B., Evitt, A.S., Kourist, R. and Bornscheuer, U.T. 2012. Creation of a lipase highly selective for trans fatty acids by protein engineering. Angew Chem Int Ed. 51:412–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201106126
Chen, M., Li, Y., Sun, Q., Pan, A., Manson, J.E., Rexrode, K.M., Willett, W.C., Rimm, E.B. and Hu, F.B., 2016. Dairy fat and risk of cardiovascular disease in 3 cohorts of US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 104:1209–1217. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.134460
Cui, Y., Hao, P., Liu, B. and Meng, X. 2017. Effect of traditional Chinese cooking methods on fatty acid profiles of vegetable oils. Food Chem. 233:77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.084
Destaillats, F. and Angers, P. 2002. Evidence for [1,5] sigmatropic rearrangements of CLA in heated oils. Lipids. 37:435–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1145-002-0912-4
Eratte, D., Dowling, K., Barrow, C. and Adhikari, B. 2017. In vitro digestion of probiotic bacteria and omega-3 oil co-microencapsulated in whey protein isolate-gum Arabic complex coacervates. Food Chem. 227:129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.080
Khan, N.A., Cone, J.W. and Hendriks, W.H. 2009. Stability of fatty acids in grass and maize silages after exposure to air during the feed-out period. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 154:183–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2009.09.005
Khan, N.A., Cone, J.W., Pellikaan, W.F., Khan, M.A., Struik, P.C. and Hendriks, W.H. 2011. Changes in fatty acid content and composition in silage maize during grain filling. J Sci Food Agric. 91:1041–1049. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4279
Khan, N.A., Tewoldebrhan, T.A., Zom, R.L.G., Cone, J.W. and Hendriks, W.H. 2012. Effect of corn silage harvest maturity and concentrate type on milk fatty acid composition of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 95:1472–1483. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2011-4701
Li, T., Guo, Q., Liang, M., Qu, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, Q. 2023. Impact of additives on the formation of thermally induced trans linoleic acid in peanut oil. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 58(5), 2498-2504. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16391
Liang, M., Li, T., Qu, Y., Qin, J., Li, Z., Huang, X., Wang, Q. 2023. Mitigation mechanism of resveratrol on thermally induced trans-α-linolenic acid of trilinolenin. LWT, 189, 115508. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115508
Littell, R.C., Henry, P.R. and Ammerman, C.B. 1998. Statistical analysis of repeated measures data using SAS procedures. J Anim Sci. 76:1216–1231. https://doi.org/10.2527/1998.7641216x
Littell, R.C., Milliken, G.A., Stroup, W.W., Wolfinger, R.D. and Schabenberger, O. 2006. SAS System for Mixed Models, 2nd edn. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Loor, J.J., Ueda, K., Ferlay, A., Chilliard, Y. and Doreau, M. 2004. Biohydrogenation, duodenal flow, and intestinal digestibility of trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in response to dietary forage: concentrate ratio and linseed oil in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 87:2472–2485. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73372-X
Micha, R. and Mozaffarian, D. 2009. Trans fatty acids: effects on metabolic syndrome, heart disease and diabetes. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 5:335–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2009.79
Papantoniou, K., Fíto, M., Covas, M.I., Muñoz, D. and Schröder, H. 2010. Trans fatty acid consumption, lifestyle and type 2 diabetes prevalence in a Spanish population. Eur J Nutr. 49:357–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-010-0093-z
Pattanayak, S. 2019. Trans-fats of processed and fried foods a choice for taste or serious health problems? Explor Anim Med Res. 9:5–14.
Shingfield, K.J., Reynolds, C.K., Hervas, G., Griinari, J.M., Grandison, A.S. and Beever, D.E. 2006. Examination of the persistency of milk fatty acid composition responses to fish oil and sunflower oil in the diet of dairy cows. JDairy Sci. 89:714–732. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72134-8
Siddiq, M., Alam, S., Shah, H.U., Iqbal, Z., Siddiq, K. and Ahmad, T. 2018. Sensory evaluation of olive and palm oil blends during frying of potato chips. Sarhad J Agric. 34:690–695. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2018/34.3.690.695
Szabo, A., Sztermen, L., Varga, D., Boros, N. and Szabo, E. 2022. Effects of repeated heating on fatty acid composition of plant-based cooking oils. Foods. 11:192. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020192
Talpur, M.Y., Sherazi, S.T.H., Mahesar, S.A., Naz, S. and Kara, H. 2012. Impact of frying on key fatty acid ratios of canola oil. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 114:222–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201100156
Tian, M., Bai, Y., Tian, H. and Zhao, X. 2023. The chemical composition and health-promoting benefits of vegetable oils—a review. Molecules. 28(17):6393. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176393
Tsuzuki, W., Matsuoka, A. and Ushida, K. 2010. Formation of trans-fatty acids in edible oils during the frying and heating process. Food Chem. 123:976–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.048
Venkata, R.P. and Subramanyam, R. 2016. Evaluation of the deleterious health effects of consumption of repeatedly heated vegetable oil. Toxicol Rep. 3:636–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2016.08.003
Walter, C.W. and Mozaffarian, D. 2007. Trans-fat in cardiac and diabetes risk: an overview. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep. 1:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12170-007-0004-x
Wang, Z. and Goonewardene, L.A. 2004. The use of MIXED models in the analysis of animal experiments with repeated measures data. Can J Anim Sci. 84:1–11. https://doi.org/10.4141/A03-123
Yanai, H., Katsuyama, H., Hamasaki, H., Abe, S., Tada, N. and Sako, A. 2015. Effects of dietary fat intake on HDL metabolism. J Clin Med Res. 7:145. https://doi.org/10.14740/jocmr2030w
Zhang, Q., Saleh, A.S., Chen, J. and Shen, Q. 2012. Chemical alterations taken place during deep-fat frying based on certain reaction products: a review. Chem Phy Lipids. 165:662–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2012.07.002
Zhuang, Y., Dong, J., He, X., Wang, J., Li, C., Dong, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou. X., Wang, H., Yi, Y. and Wang, S. 2022. Impact of heating temperature and fatty acid type on the formation of lipid oxidation products during thermal processing. Front Nutr. 2(9):91. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.913297
Zribi, A., Jabeur, H., Aladedunye, F., Rebai, A., Matthäus, B. and Bouaziz, M. 2014. Monitoring of quality and stability characteristics and fatty acid compositions of refined olive and seed oils during repeated pan- and deep-frying using GC, FT-NIRS, and chemometrics. J Agric Food Chem. 62:10357–10367. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf503146f
Bhardwaj, S., Passi, S.J. and Misra, A. 2011. Overview of trans fatty acids: biochemistry and health effects. Diabetes Metab Syndr Clin Res Rev (DMSCRR). 5:161–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsx.2012.03.002
Bhardwaj, S., Passi, S.J., Misra, A., Pant, K.K., Anwar, K., Pandey, R.M. and Kardam, V. 2016. Effect of heating/reheating of fats/oils, as used by Asian Indians, on trans fatty acid formation. Food Chem. 212:663–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.021
Brundiek, H.B., Evitt, A.S., Kourist, R. and Bornscheuer, U.T. 2012. Creation of a lipase highly selective for trans fatty acids by protein engineering. Angew Chem Int Ed. 51:412–414. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201106126
Chen, M., Li, Y., Sun, Q., Pan, A., Manson, J.E., Rexrode, K.M., Willett, W.C., Rimm, E.B. and Hu, F.B., 2016. Dairy fat and risk of cardiovascular disease in 3 cohorts of US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 104:1209–1217. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.134460
Cui, Y., Hao, P., Liu, B. and Meng, X. 2017. Effect of traditional Chinese cooking methods on fatty acid profiles of vegetable oils. Food Chem. 233:77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.04.084
Destaillats, F. and Angers, P. 2002. Evidence for [1,5] sigmatropic rearrangements of CLA in heated oils. Lipids. 37:435–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1145-002-0912-4
Eratte, D., Dowling, K., Barrow, C. and Adhikari, B. 2017. In vitro digestion of probiotic bacteria and omega-3 oil co-microencapsulated in whey protein isolate-gum Arabic complex coacervates. Food Chem. 227:129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.01.080
Khan, N.A., Cone, J.W. and Hendriks, W.H. 2009. Stability of fatty acids in grass and maize silages after exposure to air during the feed-out period. Anim Feed Sci Technol. 154:183–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2009.09.005
Khan, N.A., Cone, J.W., Pellikaan, W.F., Khan, M.A., Struik, P.C. and Hendriks, W.H. 2011. Changes in fatty acid content and composition in silage maize during grain filling. J Sci Food Agric. 91:1041–1049. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4279
Khan, N.A., Tewoldebrhan, T.A., Zom, R.L.G., Cone, J.W. and Hendriks, W.H. 2012. Effect of corn silage harvest maturity and concentrate type on milk fatty acid composition of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 95:1472–1483. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2011-4701
Li, T., Guo, Q., Liang, M., Qu, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, Q. 2023. Impact of additives on the formation of thermally induced trans linoleic acid in peanut oil. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 58(5), 2498-2504. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.16391
Liang, M., Li, T., Qu, Y., Qin, J., Li, Z., Huang, X., Wang, Q. 2023. Mitigation mechanism of resveratrol on thermally induced trans-α-linolenic acid of trilinolenin. LWT, 189, 115508. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2023.115508
Littell, R.C., Henry, P.R. and Ammerman, C.B. 1998. Statistical analysis of repeated measures data using SAS procedures. J Anim Sci. 76:1216–1231. https://doi.org/10.2527/1998.7641216x
Littell, R.C., Milliken, G.A., Stroup, W.W., Wolfinger, R.D. and Schabenberger, O. 2006. SAS System for Mixed Models, 2nd edn. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Loor, J.J., Ueda, K., Ferlay, A., Chilliard, Y. and Doreau, M. 2004. Biohydrogenation, duodenal flow, and intestinal digestibility of trans fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids in response to dietary forage: concentrate ratio and linseed oil in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 87:2472–2485. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(04)73372-X
Micha, R. and Mozaffarian, D. 2009. Trans fatty acids: effects on metabolic syndrome, heart disease and diabetes. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 5:335–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2009.79
Papantoniou, K., Fíto, M., Covas, M.I., Muñoz, D. and Schröder, H. 2010. Trans fatty acid consumption, lifestyle and type 2 diabetes prevalence in a Spanish population. Eur J Nutr. 49:357–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00394-010-0093-z
Pattanayak, S. 2019. Trans-fats of processed and fried foods a choice for taste or serious health problems? Explor Anim Med Res. 9:5–14.
Shingfield, K.J., Reynolds, C.K., Hervas, G., Griinari, J.M., Grandison, A.S. and Beever, D.E. 2006. Examination of the persistency of milk fatty acid composition responses to fish oil and sunflower oil in the diet of dairy cows. JDairy Sci. 89:714–732. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72134-8
Siddiq, M., Alam, S., Shah, H.U., Iqbal, Z., Siddiq, K. and Ahmad, T. 2018. Sensory evaluation of olive and palm oil blends during frying of potato chips. Sarhad J Agric. 34:690–695. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2018/34.3.690.695
Szabo, A., Sztermen, L., Varga, D., Boros, N. and Szabo, E. 2022. Effects of repeated heating on fatty acid composition of plant-based cooking oils. Foods. 11:192. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11020192
Talpur, M.Y., Sherazi, S.T.H., Mahesar, S.A., Naz, S. and Kara, H. 2012. Impact of frying on key fatty acid ratios of canola oil. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol. 114:222–228. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejlt.201100156
Tian, M., Bai, Y., Tian, H. and Zhao, X. 2023. The chemical composition and health-promoting benefits of vegetable oils—a review. Molecules. 28(17):6393. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28176393
Tsuzuki, W., Matsuoka, A. and Ushida, K. 2010. Formation of trans-fatty acids in edible oils during the frying and heating process. Food Chem. 123:976–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.05.048
Venkata, R.P. and Subramanyam, R. 2016. Evaluation of the deleterious health effects of consumption of repeatedly heated vegetable oil. Toxicol Rep. 3:636–643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2016.08.003
Walter, C.W. and Mozaffarian, D. 2007. Trans-fat in cardiac and diabetes risk: an overview. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep. 1:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12170-007-0004-x
Wang, Z. and Goonewardene, L.A. 2004. The use of MIXED models in the analysis of animal experiments with repeated measures data. Can J Anim Sci. 84:1–11. https://doi.org/10.4141/A03-123
Yanai, H., Katsuyama, H., Hamasaki, H., Abe, S., Tada, N. and Sako, A. 2015. Effects of dietary fat intake on HDL metabolism. J Clin Med Res. 7:145. https://doi.org/10.14740/jocmr2030w
Zhang, Q., Saleh, A.S., Chen, J. and Shen, Q. 2012. Chemical alterations taken place during deep-fat frying based on certain reaction products: a review. Chem Phy Lipids. 165:662–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2012.07.002
Zhuang, Y., Dong, J., He, X., Wang, J., Li, C., Dong, L., Zhang, Y., Zhou. X., Wang, H., Yi, Y. and Wang, S. 2022. Impact of heating temperature and fatty acid type on the formation of lipid oxidation products during thermal processing. Front Nutr. 2(9):91. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.913297
Zribi, A., Jabeur, H., Aladedunye, F., Rebai, A., Matthäus, B. and Bouaziz, M. 2014. Monitoring of quality and stability characteristics and fatty acid compositions of refined olive and seed oils during repeated pan- and deep-frying using GC, FT-NIRS, and chemometrics. J Agric Food Chem. 62:10357–10367. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf503146f
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
Pubblicato
Oct 1, 2025
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Come citare
Ahmad Khan, N. ., Alam, S., Suleman, M., Khan, A., Ahmad, M. N., Zia, A., Khan, A. A., ul Haq, T., Aziz, T., Al-Hoshani, N., Al-Asmari, F., & Al-Joufi, F. A. (2025). Evaluating composition of fatty acids in commonly used edible oils and fats on repeated frying for its nutritional quality implications. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 233-243. https://doi.org/15586/ijfs.v37i4.3189
Sezione
Original Article
Questo volume è pubblicato con la licenza Creative Commons Attribuzione - Non commerciale - Condividi allo stesso modo 4.0 Internazionale.
Copyright Agreement with Authors
Before publication, after the acceptance of the manuscript, Authors have to sign a Publication Agreement with "Italian Journal of Food Science", granting and assigning to "Italian Journal of Food Science" the perpetual right to distribute the work free of charge by any means and in any parts of the world, including the communication to the public through the journal website.
License for Published Contents
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Come citare
Ahmad Khan, N. ., Alam, S., Suleman, M., Khan, A., Ahmad, M. N., Zia, A., Khan, A. A., ul Haq, T., Aziz, T., Al-Hoshani, N., Al-Asmari, F., & Al-Joufi, F. A. (2025). Evaluating composition of fatty acids in commonly used edible oils and fats on repeated frying for its nutritional quality implications. Italian Journal of Food Science, 37(4), 233-243. https://doi.org/15586/ijfs.v37i4.3189